Semiconductors for Alternative Energy Technologies: Opportunities and Markets

 Monthly Update

Chapter 1  Introduction                                                                 1-1

 

Chapter 2    Solar Energy                                                                  2-1    

 

2.1     Solar Infrastructure                                                                   2-1     2.1.1     Current developments                                                                                    2-2     2.1.2     Worldwide installed photovoltaic totals                                                               2-9     2.1.3     Applications of PV          2-11                                                                                2.1.3.1  PV Power Stations          2-11   2.1.3.2  PV in Buildings                                                 2-13   2.1.3.3  PV in Transport     2-15                                                                                2.1.3.4  PV in Standalone Devices       2-18                                                                                2.1.3.5  Rural Electrification          2-18   2.1.3.6  Solar Roadways                                                 2-19   2.1.4     Economics of PV    2-19   2.1.4.1  Power Costs                                                      2-19   2.1.4.2  Grid Parity          2-20   2.1.4                                                                              Financial Incentives     2-21          2.1.5  Solar Forecast                                                                 2-24

2.2     Semiconductor Technology                                                       2-26   2.2.1     Key Component Semiconductor Devices                                                    2-26   2.2.2          Semiconductor Forecast                                                            2-38  

 

Chapter 3    Wind Energy                                                                  3-1    

 

3.1     Wind Energy  Infrastructure                                                    3-1     3.1.1     Electricity Generation 3-2                                                                                  3.1.1.1  Grid Management System        3-2                                                                                  3.1.1.2  Capacity Factor          3-3     3.1.2                                                                               Turbine Placement      3-4          3.1.3  Offshore Wind Farms                                                     3-4     3.1.4     Utilization Of Wind Power                                                                                      3-9     3.1.5     Small Scale Wind Power                                                                                      3-16   3.1.6     Economics And Feasibility                                                                                  3-17   3.1.6.1  Growth And Cost Trends 3-17                                                                                3.1.6.2  Theoretical Potential      3-25                                                                                3.1.6.3  Direct Costs   3-25          3.1.6.4  External Costs                                                            3-26   3.1.6.5  Incentives          3-27

3.2     Semiconductor Technology                                                       3-28   3.2.1     Key Component Semiconductor Devices                                                    3-28   3.2.2          Semiconductor Forecast                                                            3-32  

 

Chapter 4    Fuel Cells                                                                       4-1    

 

4.1     Fuel Cell Infrastructure                                                             4-1     4.1.1     Fuel Cell Design        4-1                                                                                  4.1.2  History       4-3  4.1.3          Types of fuel cells                                                                    4-4     4.1.3.1  Polymer Electrolyte Membrane                                                                        4-4     4.1.3.2  Phosphoric Acid   4-6     4.1.3.3  Direct Methanol                                                4-8     4.1.3.4  Alkaline           4-8     4.1.3.6  Molten Carbonate                                              4-10   4.1.3.7  Solid Oxide           4-12

4.1.3.8  Proton Exchange Fuel Cells                                         4-15

          4.1.3.9  Regenerative (Reversible) Fuel Cells                            4-20   4.1.4     Efficiency           4-20   4.1.4.1  Fuel cell efficiency                                            4-20   4.1.4.2  In practice          4-21   4.1.5                                                                               Fuel cell applications   4-23          4.1.5.1  Suggested applications                                                4-24   4.1.5.2  Hydrogen transportation and refueling                                                                4-28

4.1.6  Fuel Cell Manufacturers                                                 4-34

4.2     Semiconductor Technology                                                       4-45   4.2.1     Key Component Semiconductor Devices                                                    4-45   4.2.2          Semiconductor Forecast                                                            4-54  

 

Chapter 5    Storage Technology                                                        5-1    

 

5.1     Storage Infrastructure                                                               5-1     5.1.1     Usage And Applications                                                                                      5-2     5.1.2     Charging And Discharging                                                                                       5-4     5.1.3     Active Components                                                                                      5-6     5.1.3.1  Common Rechargeable Battery Types                                                                5-9     5.1.3.2  Less Common Types                                                                                  5-10   5.1.4     Recent Developments                                                                                   5-11   5.1.5     Alternatives          5-11   5.1.6                                                                               Batteries for Electric Vehicles          5-12

          5.2.6.1  NiMH Batteries                                                           5-12

          5.1.6.2  EV Li-Ion Rechargeable Batteries                                5-16

          5.1.6.3  Start-Stop Batteries                                                     5-34

5.2     Semiconductor Technology                                                       5-40   5.2.1     Key Component Semiconductor Devices                                                    5-22

          5.2.2  Semiconductor Forecast                                                  5-28

 

Chapter 6    Geothermal Energy                                                        6-1    

 

6.1     Geothermal Energy Technology Infrastructure                           6-1     6.1.1     Geothermal Technologies                                                                                     6-1     6.1.2     Advantages           6-6     6.1.3                                                                              Disadvantages       6-7  6.1.4           History Of Development                                                          6-8     6.1.5     Development Around The World                                                                             6-8     6.1.6     Geothermal Forecast       6-18

6.2     Semiconductor Technology                                                       6-19   6.2.1     Key Component Semiconductor Devices                                                    6-19

          6.2.2  Semiconductor Forecast                                                  6-22

 

Chapter 7    Nuclear Power                                                               7-1    

 

7.1     Nuclear Power Infrastructure                                                     7-1     7.1.1     History           7-4     7.1.1.1  Origins                                                              7-4     7.1.1.2  Early Years          7-5     7.1.1.3  Development                                                     7-7     7.1.2     Future Of The Industry      7-8                                                                                  7.1.2.1  Micro Reactors          7-12   7.1.3                                                                               Nuclear Reactor Forecast          7-32

7.2     Semiconductor Technology                                                       7-53   7.2.1     Key Component Semiconductor Devices                                                    7-53

          7.2.2  Semiconductor Forecast                                                  7-55

 

Chapter 8    Energy Harvesting                                                         8-1

 

8.1     Harvesting Energy                                                                    8-1

          8.1.1  Vibration Energy                                                             8-3

          8.1.2  Thermoelectric Energy                                                    8-6

          8.1.3  Electromagnetic Energy                                                  8-11

8.1.4  Piezoelectric Energy                                                       8-13

8.1.5  Electrostatic (Capacitive) Energy                                    8-15

          8.1.6  Light Energy                                                                 8-16

8.2     Storing Energy                                                                         8-16

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES

 

2.1     Total Photovoltaic Peak Power Capacity By Country                  2-10

2.2     World's Largest Photovoltaic Power Plants                                 2-12

3.1     Operational Offshore Wind Farms                                                                           3-7

3.2     Wind Farms Under Construction                                               3-8

3.3     Installed Windpower Capacity (MW)                                         3-10

3.4     Annual Wind Power Generation (TWh)                                     3-12

3.5     U.S. Installed Capacity (Megawatts) 1981-Present                      3-14

4.1     Fuel Cell Comparisons                                                                                                       4-17

4.2     Fuel Cell Details                                                                                                                      4-18

5.1     Rechargeable Battery Technologies                                           5-7

5.2     10-Year Costs For Electric Vehicle Batteries                              5-14

5.3     Breakeven Costs For EV Batteries – 40 Mile Range                    5-15

5.4     Breakeven Costs For EV Batteries – 100 Mile Range                  5-17

5.5     Technical Targets: Inverter/Motor Powertrain                            5-37

5.6     Technical Targets: Integrated Inverter/Motor                             5-38

7.1     Worldwide Nuclear Reactors By Region                                     7-2

7.2     Small-Medium Reactors                                                            7-15

7-3     Number Of Reactors In Operation Worldwide                            7-32

7-4     Number Of Reactors Under Construction Worldwide                 7-33

7-5     Nuclear Share In Electricity Generation (%)                              7-34

8.1     Comparison Between Different Ambient Energy Sources           8-2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES

 

2.1     Flat Plate Solar Collector                                                                                                  2-3

2.2     Parabolic Trough Solar Collector                                               2-4

2.3     Solar Dish/Engine Collector                                                      2-5

2.4     Solar Power Tower Collector                                                     2-6

2.5     Forecast Of Solar Power                                                            2-25

2.6     Block Diagram Of Microcontroller-Based Inverter                      2-29

2.7     Block Diagram Of Solar Inverter System                                   2-30

2.8     Full Bridge IGBT Topology                                                       2-35

2.9     PV Inverter Market Distribution                                                2-37

2.10   Semiconductor Revenues From Solar Energy Systems               2-39

3.1     Evolution Of U.S. Commercial Wind Technology                      3-5

3.2     U.S. Installed Capacity (Megawatts)                                        3-15

3.3     Worldwide Wind Turbine Shipments 1995 - 2012                      3-19

3.4     Wind Power As Percent Of Electricity                                       3-21

3.5     Semiconductor Revenues From Wind Energy Systems               3-31

4.1     Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell                        4-5

4.2     Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) Fuel Cell                              4-7

4.3     Alkaline (AFC) Fuel Cell                                                          4-9

4.4     Molten Carbonate (MCFC) Fuel Cell                                         4-11

4.5     Solid Oxide (SOFC) Fuel Cell                                                    4-13

4.6     Proton Exchange Fuel Cell                                                        4-16

4.7     Transition To A Hydrogen Economy                                         4-29

4.8     Hydrogen Reformer Fueling Station                                          4-32

4.9     Diversified Fuel Cell Development                                            4-35

4.10   Shipments Of Stationary Fuel Cells 50kW And

          below                                                                                       4-40

4.11   Shipments Of Stationary Fuel Cells

          above                                                                                      4-41

4.12   Worldwide Fuel Cell Shipments 2003 - 2012                              4-44

4.13   Fuel Cell Inverter In Car                                                           4-46

4.14   Block Diagram Of Fuel Cell Inverter                                         4-50

4.15   Semiconductor Revenues From Fuel Cell Systems                     4-55

5.1     Mass And Volume Energy Densities Of Secondary Cells            5-8

5.2     Battery Capacity For An Electric Vehicle                                   5-19

5.3     Battery Price With Increased Production                                    5-20

5.4     Cathode Material Cost                                                              5-23

5.5     Target For  Li-Ion Rechargeable Batteries                                5-25

5.6     Diverse Range Of Candidates For Cathodes                               5-28

5.7     Improving Cathode Materials                                                    5-30

5.8     Battery Loads - Conventional Versus Stop-Start System            5-35

5.9     Shipments Of Start-Stop, HEV, PHEV, AND EV                       5-38

5.10   Start-Stop Market Forecast                                                        5-39

5.10   A Simple Diagram Of A HEV Traction Drive System                 5-42

5.11   A More Complex Diagram Of PEEM In A Plug-In

          Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)                                                5-43

5.12   Conducting And Switching Loses For Inverter                           5-45

5.13   Unit Pricing Trends In Power Semiconductors                           5-47

5.14   Power Discrete Market Forecast For HEVs and EVs                   5-48

6.1     Geothermal With Well to Magma                                              6-2

6.2     Conventional Geothermal Well                                                 6.4

6.3     Geothermal Heat Pump                                                             6-5

7.1     Hyperion Nuclear Reactor                                                         7-13

7.2     Heat Transfer For Different Primary Coolants                            7-30

7.3     Historical And Projected World Energy Use By Energy Source,

1980-2030                                                                                7-52

8.1     Technologies for Harvesting Energy                                          8-4

8.2     Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvester                              8-5

8.3     Thermoelectric Energy Converter And Photovoltaic Cell           8-7

8.4     The Four Main Blocks Of A Typical Energy-Scavenging System   8-9

8.5     The LTC3108 Converter/Power Manager                                   8-12

8.6     Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting Beam and MEMS Varactors      8-14

8.7     Constant-Current/Constant-Voltage Battery Charging Model     8-17